Tuesday, June 26, 2007
5
"Honor your father and your mother, so that you may live long in the land the Lord your God is giving you." [Exodus 20:12]
4
"Remember the Sabbath day by keeping it holy. Six days you shall labor and do all your work, but the seventh day is a Sabbath to the Lord your God. On it you shall not do any work, neither you, nor your son or daughter, nor your manservant or maidservant ('employees'), nor your animals, not the alien (stranger - KJV) within your gates. For in six days the Lord made the heavens and the earth, the sea, and all that is in them, but he rested on the seventh day. Therefore the Lord blessed the Sabbath day and made it holy." [Exodus 20:8-11]
3
"You shall not misuse the name of the Lord your God (take the name of Lord thy God in vain - KJV), for the Lord will not hold anyone guiltless who misuses his name." [Exodus 20:7]
2
"You shall not make for yourself an idol (any graven image - KJV) in the form of anything in heaven above or on the earth beneath or in the waters below. You shall not bow down to them or worship them; for I, the Lord your God, am a jealous God, punishing the children for the sin of the fathers to third and fourth generation of those who hate me, but showing love to a thousand (generations) of those who love me and keep my commandments." [Exodus 20:4-6]
A few birthday items
So we celebrated my birthday yesterday, June 25. I'm sure you're curious what I might have received as gifts. I think I'll share a few items of interest:
"Thou Shalt Laugh" DVD;
"The Fight of Every Believer: Conquering the Thought Attacks That War Against Your Mind" by Terry Law;
"The Truth About Jesus and the 'Lost Gospels': A Reasoned Look at Thomas, Judas, and the Gnostic Gospels" by David Marshall;
"Billions of Missing Links: A Rational Look at the Mysteries Evolution Can't Explain" by Geoffrey Simmons, M.D.;
"Facing Your Giants" by Max Lucado;
"Behind the Mask of Religious Traditions: Your Guide to Discovering and Destroying Sacred Cows" by Mark Briggs;
"Bible & Christian History Time Lines: More Than 6,000 Years at a Glance" by Rose Publishing (This is really cool - this is a "removable 20-foot time line" that combines biblical history and secular history).
Yes, I did receive some other items - but I figure that stating that I got a few shirts, an air compressor hose and wall-mountable reel, etc. wouldn't spark much interest out there...
"Thou Shalt Laugh" DVD;
"The Fight of Every Believer: Conquering the Thought Attacks That War Against Your Mind" by Terry Law;
"The Truth About Jesus and the 'Lost Gospels': A Reasoned Look at Thomas, Judas, and the Gnostic Gospels" by David Marshall;
"Billions of Missing Links: A Rational Look at the Mysteries Evolution Can't Explain" by Geoffrey Simmons, M.D.;
"Facing Your Giants" by Max Lucado;
"Behind the Mask of Religious Traditions: Your Guide to Discovering and Destroying Sacred Cows" by Mark Briggs;
"Bible & Christian History Time Lines: More Than 6,000 Years at a Glance" by Rose Publishing (This is really cool - this is a "removable 20-foot time line" that combines biblical history and secular history).
Yes, I did receive some other items - but I figure that stating that I got a few shirts, an air compressor hose and wall-mountable reel, etc. wouldn't spark much interest out there...
Monday, June 25, 2007
“Profiles in Courage”
“Profiles in Courage” – Andy Pressman, Albuquerque, New Mexico
9/1/2004 by Richard Hamming
I selected Andy Pressman’s firm because he started out focusing on design and was able to build a successful firm without getting lost in the business-side of running an architecture office. [I first read these pages back in 1997 when I was finishing up my undergraduate degree and purchased Professional Practice 101 by Andy Pressman, AIA. I haven’t read this in a while; it is always good to revisit dusty books from my library!] It’s refreshing to read about someone who enjoys design, decides to start his own firm, and is able to make it work by associating with other people/co-workers who will bring complementary skills to the firm.
It’s good that Pressman focuses so much on the client. This is very important in the eyes of the client to see that their business, and their building, actually matter and mean something to you as an architect (and not just as means to a paycheck). Happy clients will spread the word about you and hopefully lead to more work, either from them or from others. Pressman doesn’t go into much detail about how his firm is run and managed, but it almost seems that he personally spends too much time up front with his clients, if that’s possible. At least he is able to create a good relationship with the client so that if they come back at a late time of design and want to change something major, he can dissuade them of it successfully.
If I were just starting out in the work force, I think that I would enjoy working at Andy Pressman, AIA Architect. Pressman, having written a book about professional practice in the architecture field, is well aware of what architecture students go through and need to gain experience in (including what they’ll be lacking from college education). He enjoys design and desires to teach it to others, so that would create an ideal work environment to the prospective intern.
An aspect of this firm that I would improve is to expand its realm of project types (do more of a variety of building types than those mentioned in the text). It’s great that Pressman is able to do projects around the U.S., but it seems that he focuses on residential and commercial interior projects. [I could be wrong since I haven’t done any background research on the firm, but these few pages seem to focus on houses]. The firms that I have worked at specialized in a variety of building types that I find keeps better levels of interest and prevents getting into a rut.
The principal, Andy Pressman, seems to be well aware of how to properly balance business with practice in his firm. He stresses the importance of developing the construction documents from the conceptual design, developing an excellent relationship with his clients to maintain good communication through all phases of the process, and is aware of the importance of the business aspects including getting more work through referrals and repeat commissions. I think that in order to be successfully run, architecture must be business. If you want to get paid for what you enjoy doing, you cannot ignore the business-side of the profession. Andy Pressman is aware of this principle since he has been in business on his own since 1983.
9/1/2004 by Richard Hamming
I selected Andy Pressman’s firm because he started out focusing on design and was able to build a successful firm without getting lost in the business-side of running an architecture office. [I first read these pages back in 1997 when I was finishing up my undergraduate degree and purchased Professional Practice 101 by Andy Pressman, AIA. I haven’t read this in a while; it is always good to revisit dusty books from my library!] It’s refreshing to read about someone who enjoys design, decides to start his own firm, and is able to make it work by associating with other people/co-workers who will bring complementary skills to the firm.
It’s good that Pressman focuses so much on the client. This is very important in the eyes of the client to see that their business, and their building, actually matter and mean something to you as an architect (and not just as means to a paycheck). Happy clients will spread the word about you and hopefully lead to more work, either from them or from others. Pressman doesn’t go into much detail about how his firm is run and managed, but it almost seems that he personally spends too much time up front with his clients, if that’s possible. At least he is able to create a good relationship with the client so that if they come back at a late time of design and want to change something major, he can dissuade them of it successfully.
If I were just starting out in the work force, I think that I would enjoy working at Andy Pressman, AIA Architect. Pressman, having written a book about professional practice in the architecture field, is well aware of what architecture students go through and need to gain experience in (including what they’ll be lacking from college education). He enjoys design and desires to teach it to others, so that would create an ideal work environment to the prospective intern.
An aspect of this firm that I would improve is to expand its realm of project types (do more of a variety of building types than those mentioned in the text). It’s great that Pressman is able to do projects around the U.S., but it seems that he focuses on residential and commercial interior projects. [I could be wrong since I haven’t done any background research on the firm, but these few pages seem to focus on houses]. The firms that I have worked at specialized in a variety of building types that I find keeps better levels of interest and prevents getting into a rut.
The principal, Andy Pressman, seems to be well aware of how to properly balance business with practice in his firm. He stresses the importance of developing the construction documents from the conceptual design, developing an excellent relationship with his clients to maintain good communication through all phases of the process, and is aware of the importance of the business aspects including getting more work through referrals and repeat commissions. I think that in order to be successfully run, architecture must be business. If you want to get paid for what you enjoy doing, you cannot ignore the business-side of the profession. Andy Pressman is aware of this principle since he has been in business on his own since 1983.
Architectural licensure should be required to practice architecture
Architectural licensure should be required to practice architecture
9/1/2004 by Richard Hamming
The article by Victoria Beach titled A Case for Unprofessional Architecture from July 2003 raises interesting points. Although I can understand where she is coming from in her various topics, I do not think it would be wise to eliminate the requirement for professional licensure in the architecture field.
Education and training of architects are certainly important to the process of becoming licensed. The education requirements in most of the United States have become increasingly more demanding over the past decades. Most states currently require a professional degree in architecture: either a five-year bachelor’s or a master’s degree. I think that this lengthy college program should not be a requirement. I feel that an undergraduate degree in architecture should be required, but the option to obtain more actual work experience should be acceptable. Continuing education requirements of architects is also important. It is important that as new technologies emerge, that those licensed architects be held responsible to maintain up to date knowledge.
The public certainly expects someone with the title of “architect” to be able to perform at a specific level and deliver a professional product. Simply using a builder or purchasing an out-of-the-box kit is never considered architecture. The public should expect an architect to add that artistic side to the engineering and technical side of building. Requiring architects, or any profession to be able to prove that they have at least the minimum required knowledge to perform their job functions properly and safely should never eliminated.
A key factor in maintaining the licensure requirement is the issue of safety. You wouldn’t expect just anyone who has worked in a hospital for 20 years to perform a triple by-pass operation on you; likewise, you shouldn’t expect someone who has worked in the construction industry for 20 years to design a skyscraper for 10,000 people to live and work in. A doctor and an architect have legal responsibilities that impact many people. Developing specific training requirements and programs for professions such as these affect the health, safety and welfare of those they serve. Structural considerations are an important part of the safety issue in the architecture profession as well. Architects are responsible for the structural integrity of the building that they design, and thus, need to show a certain level of knowledge of structural systems in order to become licensed. Although most architects utilize structural engineering consultants, the architect is ultimately the responsible party if structural failure were to occur.
The non-technical aspects of architectural training are more difficult to determine with standard licensing examinations. Beach mentions elegance, suitability and intrigue in her article. Subjective terms such as these are important for differentiating architecture from mere building. The art in architecture is critical to the profession. The subjectiveness of this art form does not mean that this profession should not be licensed. Providing a wide variety of design style among architects more adequately provides for the differing tastes of the clients they provide service for.
Codes and regulations enforced by various agencies and departments are put into place to protect the safety of the public. The architect is expected to become knowledgeable of the relevant codes for each project and incorporate them into his/her design. The existence of codes for the technical aspects of architecture does not need to interfere with the non-technical aspects mentioned previously.
And finally, I don’t feel that it is necessary to split the profession into two: architects and building engineers. The architect should always be required to have the knowledge of the technical aspects of a building. Building engineers already exist as sub-groups of engineers: electrical, mechanical, structural, etc. Architects are responsible for providing a professional product that will be safe for its occupants and users. To split apart these two sections of the profession would not be a logical solution to the problems that Victoria Beach discussed in her article.
9/1/2004 by Richard Hamming
The article by Victoria Beach titled A Case for Unprofessional Architecture from July 2003 raises interesting points. Although I can understand where she is coming from in her various topics, I do not think it would be wise to eliminate the requirement for professional licensure in the architecture field.
Education and training of architects are certainly important to the process of becoming licensed. The education requirements in most of the United States have become increasingly more demanding over the past decades. Most states currently require a professional degree in architecture: either a five-year bachelor’s or a master’s degree. I think that this lengthy college program should not be a requirement. I feel that an undergraduate degree in architecture should be required, but the option to obtain more actual work experience should be acceptable. Continuing education requirements of architects is also important. It is important that as new technologies emerge, that those licensed architects be held responsible to maintain up to date knowledge.
The public certainly expects someone with the title of “architect” to be able to perform at a specific level and deliver a professional product. Simply using a builder or purchasing an out-of-the-box kit is never considered architecture. The public should expect an architect to add that artistic side to the engineering and technical side of building. Requiring architects, or any profession to be able to prove that they have at least the minimum required knowledge to perform their job functions properly and safely should never eliminated.
A key factor in maintaining the licensure requirement is the issue of safety. You wouldn’t expect just anyone who has worked in a hospital for 20 years to perform a triple by-pass operation on you; likewise, you shouldn’t expect someone who has worked in the construction industry for 20 years to design a skyscraper for 10,000 people to live and work in. A doctor and an architect have legal responsibilities that impact many people. Developing specific training requirements and programs for professions such as these affect the health, safety and welfare of those they serve. Structural considerations are an important part of the safety issue in the architecture profession as well. Architects are responsible for the structural integrity of the building that they design, and thus, need to show a certain level of knowledge of structural systems in order to become licensed. Although most architects utilize structural engineering consultants, the architect is ultimately the responsible party if structural failure were to occur.
The non-technical aspects of architectural training are more difficult to determine with standard licensing examinations. Beach mentions elegance, suitability and intrigue in her article. Subjective terms such as these are important for differentiating architecture from mere building. The art in architecture is critical to the profession. The subjectiveness of this art form does not mean that this profession should not be licensed. Providing a wide variety of design style among architects more adequately provides for the differing tastes of the clients they provide service for.
Codes and regulations enforced by various agencies and departments are put into place to protect the safety of the public. The architect is expected to become knowledgeable of the relevant codes for each project and incorporate them into his/her design. The existence of codes for the technical aspects of architecture does not need to interfere with the non-technical aspects mentioned previously.
And finally, I don’t feel that it is necessary to split the profession into two: architects and building engineers. The architect should always be required to have the knowledge of the technical aspects of a building. Building engineers already exist as sub-groups of engineers: electrical, mechanical, structural, etc. Architects are responsible for providing a professional product that will be safe for its occupants and users. To split apart these two sections of the profession would not be a logical solution to the problems that Victoria Beach discussed in her article.
Special Tax Districts and Business Incentives: Violation of Equal Treatment?
Special Tax Districts and Business Incentives: Violation of Equal Treatment?
7/12/2004 by Richard Hamming
The Handbook of Texas defines “Special Tax Districts” as follows:
“Special tax districts are those units of local government, exclusive of the county and incorporated municipality, which have separate governing bodies, independent, in general, of other local governments, with power to provide some governmental or quasi-governmental service and to raise revenue by taxation, special assessment, or charges for service. With the exception of school districts, historically most special districts have as their constitutional basis two amendments to the Constitution of 1876: (1) Article III, section 52 (1904), allowing the formation of special districts that could incur indebtedness up to one-fourth of the assessed property valuation, and (2) the conservation amendment, Article XVI, section 59 (1917), allowing the establishment of conservation and reclamation districts with no limit as to amount of debt or taxation.”[1]
Special Tax Districts are used by governments to provide funding for a variety of perceived necessities. Organizations and programs have been established and implemented throughout the nation to promote these tax districts, as well as through the use of tax incentive programs and subsidies. Two organizations in the state of Michigan include the Michigan Economic Growth Authority (MEGA) and the Michigan Economic Development Corporation (MEDC). Regional and local groups have also been organized throughout Michigan for varying sizes of programs and agendas. One group in Michigan is called CORE (Creating Opportunities for Renewed Economies).[2]
MEGA was enacted by Michigan in 1995 to promote high quality economic growth and job creation. Eligible companies may receive a tax credit against the Michigan Single Business Tax. Each credit may be awarded for up to twenty years and up to 100% of the amount attributed to the project. Some of the factors which affect the amount and duration of awarded credits include: the number of jobs created, the average wage of new jobs being created, total capital investment of the business, and the impact of the project on Michigan’s economy. Typical eligible companies are involved in manufacturing, research and development, or wholesale and trade.[3]
MEDC handles business development, incentives, tax cuts, smart labor force and education. According to the MEDC website, Michigan has some of the most innovative tax incentive programs in the United States. The main sources of taxes are the Single Business Tax (SBT), property taxes, and sales and use taxes. SBT is a modified value-added tax that declines 0.1% per year until eliminated in 2021. The SBT offers exemptions, deductions and credits, including an investment tax credit for capital purchases made in Michigan, and provides eligible small businesses an alternative tax of 2% on adjusted business income.[4]
Michael LaFaive with the Mackinac Center for Public Policy mentions that the MEDC is the agency that oversees Michigan’s “Renaissance Zone” program, which provides tax relief to many specific areas of various cities throughout the state. LaFaive states that recent state Senate hearings have considered “whether Michigan’s government should be in the business of trying to pick winners and losers in the marketplace.” Robert D. Plattner, a correspondent for State Tax Notes, argues that “tax incentives that cause a ‘spillover’ tax relief are also unconstitutional.” Spillover relief occurs when companies are given incentives to expand existing facilities rather than build new ones. LaFaive’s message to state lawmakers: “it’s fundamentally unfair for government to grant advantage to one business and not to others.”[5]
Incentives, typically business incentives, are a common method used by states and cities to attract businesses into the area. According to the MEDC government website, Michigan’s incentives “seek to attract and retain high-quality jobs for a highly-skilled workforce, as well as maintain a vibrant economic environment for the business community.”[6] Articles and publications in recent years tend to portray how unfair business incentives are in relation to specific tax districts. The following examples of incentives reflect this opinion.
John Hood, president of the John Locke Foundation and publisher of Carolina Journal wrote last month about this “controversial issue: targeted tax incentives for business.” Hood discusses that “there is a good case to be made that selective tax incentives violate the federal constitution’s Interstate Commerce Clause, which effectively forbids state governments from engaging in ‘trade wars’ via…tariffs. Tax laws that fail to treat firms doing business in your state the same…arguably create the kind of interstate trade barrier that the federal constitution forbids.”[7]
The vice president of the John Locke Foundation, Don Carrington defined incentives (or “corporate welfare”) as follows: “any government act that gives to a company or industry a benefit unavailable to others. It could come as a cash grant, free land, a tax break or any other exclusive arrangement.” He emphasizes that the public is becoming increasingly intolerant of this “because giving away millions of dollars of other people’s money violates the economic and moral principles of most citizens.”[8] Fortunately a common way for tax incentives to be approved involves voting. Discussions regarding equal treatment should take place prior to elections.
In a brief submitted by Paul Stam in Maready v. City of Winston-Salem, incentives are again presented as “bad public policy.” The initial portion of the summary of the article follows:
“Targeted state incentives do not provide a net economic gain. Incentives merely redistribute jobs and investment from one business to another and from one region to another. Price adjustments in free competitive markets lead to maximum efficiency in the use of resources and maximum benefit for all. Targeted incentives destroy the efficiency of the free market by favoring inefficient businesses while disfavoring efficient ones. Once this process of incentive price subsidy begins, a number of perverse market consequences result.”[9]
Stam continues later in the article to describe how the government “has no way of determining the social advantages of its decision.” Winners and losers emerge as a result, which cannot be determined in advance.[10]
Peter Enrich, Professor and Associate Dean at Northeastern University School of Law in Boston, also contributed an article regarding incentives. Enrich discusses how eliminating incentives has been a challenging game to play. He does add that “the empirical evidence suggests that tax breaks are a very minor factor in most business location decisions.”[11] This statement may lead to the conclusion that although tax incentives for businesses are unfair and should be eliminated, they really have little impact on decisions made by many companies when choosing where to build or relocate.
Incentives are, however intended for good and for the well being of the community (as defined by the government). Some incentives do help create jobs and others work toward revitalizing and improving communities. A national non-profit organization created by Congress claims to have “successfully built healthy communities for 25 years.” This organization is the Neighborhood Reinvestment Corporation and was created under Title VI of the Housing and Community Development Amendments of 1978, P.L. 95-557 to “revitalize older urban neighborhoods by mobilizing public, private, and community resources at the neighborhood level.”[12]
There are even companies that specialize in helping companies utilize any and all tax incentives available. Incentis Group, for example, provides services including incentives structuring and negotiating, tax burden and incentives analyses, incentives enhancement strategies, incentives and credit compliance, multi-state credits and incentive reviews, site selection, location analysis, economic and fiscal impact studies, economic development consulting, and new market tax credit.[13]
Incentives are not necessarily related to the establishment of special tax districts. Many of these districts are created for specific purposes that may not have a very long lifespan, and often, the taxpayers themselves are in favor of the special tax districts. Examples of recent special tax district issues in the news around the country include Atlanta’s Belt Line transit corridor into downtown. As reported by Julie Hairston with the Atlanta Journal-Constitution, Mayor Shirley Franklin “called the Belt Line ‘a huge opportunity’ for the city to expand its green space, provide effective transit and foster economic development.”[14] A committee has been assembled and is expected to develop a plan for location and possibilities by the end of 2004.
An editorial from Greensboro, North Carolina discussed a request by downtown property owners for a special “tax-and-service” district. The money levied from this district would be used to market the area and keep it clean and “safe.” The businesses desire to attract visitors by enhancing the downtown services and holding more events. The boundaries for the tax district are yet to be determined, and the city is considering added additional police foot patrols.[15]
Often special tax districts strictly levy commercial and business taxpayers. For example, if the property owners are interested, a special tax district in Gainesville, Virginia will be instituted to help pay for projects that had been placed on the “back burner” by the Virginia Department of Transportation (VDOT). One main project to pursue, according to Eric Weiss, a Washington Post staff writer, is the “easing of the gridlock in Gainesville at Interstate 66 and Route 29.” Reactions to this proposal were initially cautious. Complaints about traffic congestion come from many businesses, according to Kris Spitler, chair of the Prince William County Greater Manassas Chamber of Commerce. Weiss states, “she (Spitler) said that special taxing districts have worked well in other places and that the business community would support (the) supervisors.”[16]
John Kiesewetter with the Cincinnati Enquirer reported on a special tax district plan in Hamilton, Ohio that would implement tax-increment financing districts. These districts, according to Butler County Commissioner Michael A. Fox, would allow for “local governments to pay for improvements in an area using anticipated tax increases – the tax increment – from increased property values after the improvements.”[17] Lakota School officials, the proposed recipients of the majority of the money, expressed anxiety since apparently there was little to no communication between the school and the commissioners. This could certainly cause problems with upcoming decision-making and votes, as they occur.
In Galesville, Maryland, the residents are pushing for a special tax district to pay for repairs to the Galesville Memorial Hall. Bill Woodfield, whose family donated the original land for the hall, questioned why donations couldn’t continue to work, but mentioned “as long as the money is dedicated strictly for hall repairs, he said he would not oppose the district.”[18] The variety of sizes and reasons for instituting special tax districts throughout the country shows how widely accepted the process of using these districts.
A specific type of special tax district was considered in Derry, New Hampshire in February of 2004 called a Tax Increment Finance (TIF) District. A bulletin from the New Hampshire Office of State Planning states, “once public improvements in the district have been paid for, the increased tax value of the district would become part of the general revenue of the town and benefit everyone.” TIF districts have been used in other New Hampshire communities previously.[19] Another TIF District was created as a part of a special tax district in the Chicago area in January 2004. The Route 12 taxing district unanimously approved after the school districts signed an intergovernmental agreement with the Village of Fox Lake. As stated in an article by Lee Filas:
A tax increment financing district is established by municipalities to help offset developer costs of rebuilding in blighted areas. Under the state TIF law, property tax rates are frozen at current levels for up to 23 years with money generated from assessments going back to the developer to help offset the costs of construction.[20]
In Virginia, landowners in the Tysons Corner area of Fairfax County pushed for a special tax district to extend the Metrorail to Dulles International Airport. These commercial property owners would pay an additional real estate tax for the extension of the rail. Eric Peterson, director of Landowners Economic Alliance for the Dulles Extension of Rail (LEADER), mentioned that “to form a tax district, a majority of property owners must support it.”[21]
Some special taxes are implemented to help pay for improving existing schools and building new schools. In Victorville, California, several school districts considered forming community facilities districts with new housing developments. Due to the booming new housing market, developers approached the school officials to form the new special districts. Special taxes would be tacked onto new home purchases. The executive director of the Howard Jarvis Taxpayers Association, Kris Vosburgh, said “the law is clear that buyers must be fully informed of the additional tax before they buy the home.”[22]
In New York City, a special school district known as the Chancellor’s District was successful during it’s existence from 1996 through 2003 in faring better than other struggling schools in the area and attracting more certified teachers. Its elimination was a very debated issue between both sides. David Herszenhorn with the New York Times reported regarding a three-year study, “the teachers’ union president, Randi Weingarten, a stout critic of the decision to end the Chancellor’s District, said yesterday that she found the results of the N.Y.U. study ‘both incredibly gratifying and incredibly sad.’” The overhaul of the school system, known as Children First, eliminated the special district so that reform takes place throughout all of the hundreds of under-performing schools in the system, rather than the select few affected by the Chancellor’s District.[23] This decision in New York implies an elimination of a special district that was clearly violating equal treatment among school districts within the city.
Another type of special tax district is called regional special districts. An example of this type is the Zoo-Museum District (ZMD) in St. Louis, Missouri, which was established in 1971. According to the St. Louis government website, the five entities of the ZMD are financed by property taxes of the city and county. The institutions that are part of the ZMD are the St. Louis Zoological Park, the St. Louis Art Museum, the Missouri Botanical Garden, the St. Louis Science Center, and the Missouri History Museum. The property taxes also allow for free entry by visitors (except for the Botanical Garden).[24]
Business Improvement Districts (BIDs) are another common type of special tax district utilized by state and local governments. BIDs are also referred to as special improvement districts, special assessment districts, business assistance districts, business improvement zones and special services districts.[25] BIDS are establish to provide for the particular needs of the district. According to Paul R. Levy in the introduction to Lawrence Houstoun’s book, BIDs work to “improve the area’s safety and appearance; to enhance its image and competitiveness; to boost office, hotel, and retail occupancy; to animate streets; and to foster a resurgence in city-center housing.”[26]
These intentions may sound like a great idea and plan initially, but problems can arise within such districts. Geoffrey Booth warns “too many competing districts within a region can lead to a surplus of retail space, lease restrictions, and low rents that frustrate rather than facilitate the transformation of suburban business districts.” Booth also states that for ideal development and opportunities to function properly, the state and local governments involved need to take into account all aspects and trends of the local residential, business, and cultural communities.[27]
The establishment of special tax districts should take into account the use of a cost-benefit analysis by whoever is involved (typically by the government) to initially determine if the district is a financially responsible decision. The property owners’ and taxpayers’ input would then be acknowledged through a process such as voting. This ideal situation has been shown to not always be the case throughout the states and local governments. The issue that arises from this discussion is if the creation of special tax districts provides unfair and unequal treatment to others. The examples given throughout the country regarding special tax districts, business tax incentives, Business Improvement Districts, school districts, and other regional special districts provide differing opinions and results from how the various municipalities handle and approach these issues. Arguments for both sides can be found, and unfortunately a resolution to these issues will not likely arrive soon.
Bibliography
[T1]
“About Us.” NeighborWorks – About Us. (1 July 2004).
Berg, Emily. “Special Taxes to Pay for New Schools in Victorville, California.” Daily Press, 3 April 2004.
Booth, Geoffrey. Ten Principles for Reinventing America’s Suburban Business District. Washington: ULI – the Urban Land Institute, 2002.
“Business Incentives: Introduction.” MEDC – Business Incentives, 2004.
Carrington, Don. “A Winning Strategy to Ax the Incentives.” The News & Observer, 6 August 1999.
“A Downtown Tax District Must Have Business Backing.” News & Record (Greensboro, NC), 21 March 2004, H2.
Enrich, Peter D. “Breaking the Incentive Cycle: A Role for the Courts.” Accountability: The Newsletter of the Business Incentives Clearinghouse, September 1999. (1 July 2004).
Filas, Lee. “Special Tax Zone for Water Park Moves Forward.” Chicago Daily Herald, 15 January 2004, News 4.
Hairston, Julie B. “Belt Line Tax District under Study.” The Atlanta Journal-Constitution, 13 May 2004, 2C.
Herszenhorn, David M. “A Special School District is Gone, but a Study Cites its Benefits.” The New York Times, 1 July 2004, 2B.
Hood, John. “Credits to the Supreme Court.” Carolina Journal Online, 14 June 2004. (1 July 2004).
Hough, Debbie. “Galesville to Vote on Special Tax District.” The Capital (Annapolis, MD), 24 March 2004, C3.
Houghton, Kimberly. “Town to Consider Special Tax District.” The Union Leader (Manchester, NH), 17 February 2004, B1.
Houstoun, Lawrence O., Jr. BIDs: Business Improvement Districts. Washington: ULI – the Urban Land Institute, 2003.
“Incentives Structuring & Negotiating.” Incentis Group: Incentives Structuring & Negotiating, 2004. (1 July 2004).
Kiesewetter, John. “Bulter County to Create Special Tax Districts.” The Cincinnati Enquirer, 7 May 2004.
LaFaive, Michael D. “Are Targeted Incentives Constitutional?” Mackinac Center for Public Policy – Economic Development, 1 December 2003. (1 July 2004).
“Program Purpose and Description” and “Eligibility.” Michigan Economic Growth Authority (MEGA). (24 June 2004).
“Regional Special Districts.” About St. Louis: Government. (1 July 2004).
Rein, Lisa. “Virginia Landowners Offer Special Tax to Revive Metro Dulles Route.” The Washington Post, 22 January 2004, B01.
Stam, Paul and Tom Vass. “Targeted Business Incentives are Bad Public Policy.” Paul Stam - Articles. 19 February 2003. (29 June 2004).
“Tax Districts, Special.” The Handbook of Texas Online. 23 July 2003. (10 July 2004).
“Tax Cuts.” MEDC – Tax Cuts, 2004.
Weiss, Eric M. “Gainesville Tax District Proposed.” The Washington Post, 24 June 2004, T01.
“What are Business Improvement Districts?” What are BIDs? 26 April 1999. (1 July 2004).
[1] “Tax Districts, Special,” The Handbook of Texas Online, 23 July 2003, (10 July 2004).
[2] CORE has coordinated several Downtown Development Authorities (DDA) Michigan bills which have recently passed the state Senate in June 2004 (SB1201, SB1202, SB1203 and SB1240).
[3] “Program Purpose and Description” and “Eligibility,” Michigan Economic Growth Authority (MEGA), (24 June 2004).
[4] “Tax Cuts,” MEDC – Tax Cuts, 2004,
[5] Michael D. LaFaive, “Are Targeted Incentives Constitutional?” Mackinac Center for Public Policy – Economic Development, 1 December 2003, (1 June 2004).
[6] “Business Incentives: Introduction,” MEDC – Business Incentives, 2004,
[7] John Hood, “Credits to the Supreme Court,” Carolina Journal Online, 14 June 2004, (1 July 2004).
[8] Don Carrington, “A Winning Strategy to Ax the Incentives,” The News & Observer, 6 August 1999.
[9] Paul Stam and Tom Vass, “Targeted Business Incentives are Bad Public Policy” Paul Stam – Articles, 19 February 2003, (29 June 2004).
[10] Stam and Vaas, par. 30.
[11] Peter D. Enrich, “Breaking the Incentive Cycle: A Role for the Courts,” Accountability: The Newsletter of the Business Incentives Clearinghouse, September 1999, (1 July 2004).
[12] “About Us,” NeighborWorks – About Us, (1 July 2004).
[13] “Incentives Structuring & Negotiating,” Incentis Group: Incentives Structuring & Negotiating, 2004, (1 July 2004).
[14] Julie B. Hairston, “Belt Line Tax District Under Study” The Atlanta Journal-Constitution, 13 May 2004, 2C.
[15] “A Downtown Tax District Must Have Business Backing,” News & Record (Greensboro, NC), 21 March 2004, H2.
[16] Eric M. Weiss, “Gainesville Tax District Proposed,” The Washington Post, 24 June 2004, T01.
[17] John Kiesewetter, “Bulter County to Create Special Tax Districts,” The Cincinnati Enquirer, 7 May 2004.
[18] Debbie Hough, “Galesville to Vote on Special Tax District,” The Capital (Annapolis, MD), 24 March 2004, C3.
[19] Kimberly Houghton, “Town to Consider Special Tax District,” The Union Leader (Manchester, NH), 17 February 2004, B1.
[20] Lee Filas, “Special Tax Zone for Water Park Moves Forward,” Chicago Daily Herald, 15 January 2004, News 4.
[21] Lisa Rein, “Virginia Landowners Offer Special Tax to Revive Metro Dulles Route,” The Washington Post, 22 January 2004, B01.
[22] Emily Berg, “Special Taxes to Pay for New Schools in Victorville, California,” Daily Press, 3 April 2004.
[23] David M. Herszenhorn, “A Special School District is Gone, but a Study Cites its Benefits,” The New York Times, 7 July 2004, B2.
[24] “Regional Special Districts,” About St. Louis: Government, (1 July 2004).
[26] Lawrence O. Houstoun, Jr., BIDs: Business Improvement Districts (Washington: ULI – the Urban Land Institute, 2003).
[27] Geoffrey Booth, Ten Principles for Reinventing America’s Suburban Business District (Washington: ULI – the Urban Land Institute, 2002).
[T1]Can be “Works Cited” or “References” also..
“Special tax districts are those units of local government, exclusive of the county and incorporated municipality, which have separate governing bodies, independent, in general, of other local governments, with power to provide some governmental or quasi-governmental service and to raise revenue by taxation, special assessment, or charges for service. With the exception of school districts, historically most special districts have as their constitutional basis two amendments to the Constitution of 1876: (1) Article III, section 52 (1904), allowing the formation of special districts that could incur indebtedness up to one-fourth of the assessed property valuation, and (2) the conservation amendment, Article XVI, section 59 (1917), allowing the establishment of conservation and reclamation districts with no limit as to amount of debt or taxation.”[1]
Special Tax Districts are used by governments to provide funding for a variety of perceived necessities. Organizations and programs have been established and implemented throughout the nation to promote these tax districts, as well as through the use of tax incentive programs and subsidies. Two organizations in the state of Michigan include the Michigan Economic Growth Authority (MEGA) and the Michigan Economic Development Corporation (MEDC). Regional and local groups have also been organized throughout Michigan for varying sizes of programs and agendas. One group in Michigan is called CORE (Creating Opportunities for Renewed Economies).[2]
MEGA was enacted by Michigan in 1995 to promote high quality economic growth and job creation. Eligible companies may receive a tax credit against the Michigan Single Business Tax. Each credit may be awarded for up to twenty years and up to 100% of the amount attributed to the project. Some of the factors which affect the amount and duration of awarded credits include: the number of jobs created, the average wage of new jobs being created, total capital investment of the business, and the impact of the project on Michigan’s economy. Typical eligible companies are involved in manufacturing, research and development, or wholesale and trade.[3]
MEDC handles business development, incentives, tax cuts, smart labor force and education. According to the MEDC website, Michigan has some of the most innovative tax incentive programs in the United States. The main sources of taxes are the Single Business Tax (SBT), property taxes, and sales and use taxes. SBT is a modified value-added tax that declines 0.1% per year until eliminated in 2021. The SBT offers exemptions, deductions and credits, including an investment tax credit for capital purchases made in Michigan, and provides eligible small businesses an alternative tax of 2% on adjusted business income.[4]
Michael LaFaive with the Mackinac Center for Public Policy mentions that the MEDC is the agency that oversees Michigan’s “Renaissance Zone” program, which provides tax relief to many specific areas of various cities throughout the state. LaFaive states that recent state Senate hearings have considered “whether Michigan’s government should be in the business of trying to pick winners and losers in the marketplace.” Robert D. Plattner, a correspondent for State Tax Notes, argues that “tax incentives that cause a ‘spillover’ tax relief are also unconstitutional.” Spillover relief occurs when companies are given incentives to expand existing facilities rather than build new ones. LaFaive’s message to state lawmakers: “it’s fundamentally unfair for government to grant advantage to one business and not to others.”[5]
Incentives, typically business incentives, are a common method used by states and cities to attract businesses into the area. According to the MEDC government website, Michigan’s incentives “seek to attract and retain high-quality jobs for a highly-skilled workforce, as well as maintain a vibrant economic environment for the business community.”[6] Articles and publications in recent years tend to portray how unfair business incentives are in relation to specific tax districts. The following examples of incentives reflect this opinion.
John Hood, president of the John Locke Foundation and publisher of Carolina Journal wrote last month about this “controversial issue: targeted tax incentives for business.” Hood discusses that “there is a good case to be made that selective tax incentives violate the federal constitution’s Interstate Commerce Clause, which effectively forbids state governments from engaging in ‘trade wars’ via…tariffs. Tax laws that fail to treat firms doing business in your state the same…arguably create the kind of interstate trade barrier that the federal constitution forbids.”[7]
The vice president of the John Locke Foundation, Don Carrington defined incentives (or “corporate welfare”) as follows: “any government act that gives to a company or industry a benefit unavailable to others. It could come as a cash grant, free land, a tax break or any other exclusive arrangement.” He emphasizes that the public is becoming increasingly intolerant of this “because giving away millions of dollars of other people’s money violates the economic and moral principles of most citizens.”[8] Fortunately a common way for tax incentives to be approved involves voting. Discussions regarding equal treatment should take place prior to elections.
In a brief submitted by Paul Stam in Maready v. City of Winston-Salem, incentives are again presented as “bad public policy.” The initial portion of the summary of the article follows:
“Targeted state incentives do not provide a net economic gain. Incentives merely redistribute jobs and investment from one business to another and from one region to another. Price adjustments in free competitive markets lead to maximum efficiency in the use of resources and maximum benefit for all. Targeted incentives destroy the efficiency of the free market by favoring inefficient businesses while disfavoring efficient ones. Once this process of incentive price subsidy begins, a number of perverse market consequences result.”[9]
Stam continues later in the article to describe how the government “has no way of determining the social advantages of its decision.” Winners and losers emerge as a result, which cannot be determined in advance.[10]
Peter Enrich, Professor and Associate Dean at Northeastern University School of Law in Boston, also contributed an article regarding incentives. Enrich discusses how eliminating incentives has been a challenging game to play. He does add that “the empirical evidence suggests that tax breaks are a very minor factor in most business location decisions.”[11] This statement may lead to the conclusion that although tax incentives for businesses are unfair and should be eliminated, they really have little impact on decisions made by many companies when choosing where to build or relocate.
Incentives are, however intended for good and for the well being of the community (as defined by the government). Some incentives do help create jobs and others work toward revitalizing and improving communities. A national non-profit organization created by Congress claims to have “successfully built healthy communities for 25 years.” This organization is the Neighborhood Reinvestment Corporation and was created under Title VI of the Housing and Community Development Amendments of 1978, P.L. 95-557 to “revitalize older urban neighborhoods by mobilizing public, private, and community resources at the neighborhood level.”[12]
There are even companies that specialize in helping companies utilize any and all tax incentives available. Incentis Group, for example, provides services including incentives structuring and negotiating, tax burden and incentives analyses, incentives enhancement strategies, incentives and credit compliance, multi-state credits and incentive reviews, site selection, location analysis, economic and fiscal impact studies, economic development consulting, and new market tax credit.[13]
Incentives are not necessarily related to the establishment of special tax districts. Many of these districts are created for specific purposes that may not have a very long lifespan, and often, the taxpayers themselves are in favor of the special tax districts. Examples of recent special tax district issues in the news around the country include Atlanta’s Belt Line transit corridor into downtown. As reported by Julie Hairston with the Atlanta Journal-Constitution, Mayor Shirley Franklin “called the Belt Line ‘a huge opportunity’ for the city to expand its green space, provide effective transit and foster economic development.”[14] A committee has been assembled and is expected to develop a plan for location and possibilities by the end of 2004.
An editorial from Greensboro, North Carolina discussed a request by downtown property owners for a special “tax-and-service” district. The money levied from this district would be used to market the area and keep it clean and “safe.” The businesses desire to attract visitors by enhancing the downtown services and holding more events. The boundaries for the tax district are yet to be determined, and the city is considering added additional police foot patrols.[15]
Often special tax districts strictly levy commercial and business taxpayers. For example, if the property owners are interested, a special tax district in Gainesville, Virginia will be instituted to help pay for projects that had been placed on the “back burner” by the Virginia Department of Transportation (VDOT). One main project to pursue, according to Eric Weiss, a Washington Post staff writer, is the “easing of the gridlock in Gainesville at Interstate 66 and Route 29.” Reactions to this proposal were initially cautious. Complaints about traffic congestion come from many businesses, according to Kris Spitler, chair of the Prince William County Greater Manassas Chamber of Commerce. Weiss states, “she (Spitler) said that special taxing districts have worked well in other places and that the business community would support (the) supervisors.”[16]
John Kiesewetter with the Cincinnati Enquirer reported on a special tax district plan in Hamilton, Ohio that would implement tax-increment financing districts. These districts, according to Butler County Commissioner Michael A. Fox, would allow for “local governments to pay for improvements in an area using anticipated tax increases – the tax increment – from increased property values after the improvements.”[17] Lakota School officials, the proposed recipients of the majority of the money, expressed anxiety since apparently there was little to no communication between the school and the commissioners. This could certainly cause problems with upcoming decision-making and votes, as they occur.
In Galesville, Maryland, the residents are pushing for a special tax district to pay for repairs to the Galesville Memorial Hall. Bill Woodfield, whose family donated the original land for the hall, questioned why donations couldn’t continue to work, but mentioned “as long as the money is dedicated strictly for hall repairs, he said he would not oppose the district.”[18] The variety of sizes and reasons for instituting special tax districts throughout the country shows how widely accepted the process of using these districts.
A specific type of special tax district was considered in Derry, New Hampshire in February of 2004 called a Tax Increment Finance (TIF) District. A bulletin from the New Hampshire Office of State Planning states, “once public improvements in the district have been paid for, the increased tax value of the district would become part of the general revenue of the town and benefit everyone.” TIF districts have been used in other New Hampshire communities previously.[19] Another TIF District was created as a part of a special tax district in the Chicago area in January 2004. The Route 12 taxing district unanimously approved after the school districts signed an intergovernmental agreement with the Village of Fox Lake. As stated in an article by Lee Filas:
A tax increment financing district is established by municipalities to help offset developer costs of rebuilding in blighted areas. Under the state TIF law, property tax rates are frozen at current levels for up to 23 years with money generated from assessments going back to the developer to help offset the costs of construction.[20]
In Virginia, landowners in the Tysons Corner area of Fairfax County pushed for a special tax district to extend the Metrorail to Dulles International Airport. These commercial property owners would pay an additional real estate tax for the extension of the rail. Eric Peterson, director of Landowners Economic Alliance for the Dulles Extension of Rail (LEADER), mentioned that “to form a tax district, a majority of property owners must support it.”[21]
Some special taxes are implemented to help pay for improving existing schools and building new schools. In Victorville, California, several school districts considered forming community facilities districts with new housing developments. Due to the booming new housing market, developers approached the school officials to form the new special districts. Special taxes would be tacked onto new home purchases. The executive director of the Howard Jarvis Taxpayers Association, Kris Vosburgh, said “the law is clear that buyers must be fully informed of the additional tax before they buy the home.”[22]
In New York City, a special school district known as the Chancellor’s District was successful during it’s existence from 1996 through 2003 in faring better than other struggling schools in the area and attracting more certified teachers. Its elimination was a very debated issue between both sides. David Herszenhorn with the New York Times reported regarding a three-year study, “the teachers’ union president, Randi Weingarten, a stout critic of the decision to end the Chancellor’s District, said yesterday that she found the results of the N.Y.U. study ‘both incredibly gratifying and incredibly sad.’” The overhaul of the school system, known as Children First, eliminated the special district so that reform takes place throughout all of the hundreds of under-performing schools in the system, rather than the select few affected by the Chancellor’s District.[23] This decision in New York implies an elimination of a special district that was clearly violating equal treatment among school districts within the city.
Another type of special tax district is called regional special districts. An example of this type is the Zoo-Museum District (ZMD) in St. Louis, Missouri, which was established in 1971. According to the St. Louis government website, the five entities of the ZMD are financed by property taxes of the city and county. The institutions that are part of the ZMD are the St. Louis Zoological Park, the St. Louis Art Museum, the Missouri Botanical Garden, the St. Louis Science Center, and the Missouri History Museum. The property taxes also allow for free entry by visitors (except for the Botanical Garden).[24]
Business Improvement Districts (BIDs) are another common type of special tax district utilized by state and local governments. BIDs are also referred to as special improvement districts, special assessment districts, business assistance districts, business improvement zones and special services districts.[25] BIDS are establish to provide for the particular needs of the district. According to Paul R. Levy in the introduction to Lawrence Houstoun’s book, BIDs work to “improve the area’s safety and appearance; to enhance its image and competitiveness; to boost office, hotel, and retail occupancy; to animate streets; and to foster a resurgence in city-center housing.”[26]
These intentions may sound like a great idea and plan initially, but problems can arise within such districts. Geoffrey Booth warns “too many competing districts within a region can lead to a surplus of retail space, lease restrictions, and low rents that frustrate rather than facilitate the transformation of suburban business districts.” Booth also states that for ideal development and opportunities to function properly, the state and local governments involved need to take into account all aspects and trends of the local residential, business, and cultural communities.[27]
The establishment of special tax districts should take into account the use of a cost-benefit analysis by whoever is involved (typically by the government) to initially determine if the district is a financially responsible decision. The property owners’ and taxpayers’ input would then be acknowledged through a process such as voting. This ideal situation has been shown to not always be the case throughout the states and local governments. The issue that arises from this discussion is if the creation of special tax districts provides unfair and unequal treatment to others. The examples given throughout the country regarding special tax districts, business tax incentives, Business Improvement Districts, school districts, and other regional special districts provide differing opinions and results from how the various municipalities handle and approach these issues. Arguments for both sides can be found, and unfortunately a resolution to these issues will not likely arrive soon.
Bibliography
[T1]
“About Us.” NeighborWorks – About Us.
Berg, Emily. “Special Taxes to Pay for New Schools in Victorville, California.” Daily Press, 3 April 2004.
Booth, Geoffrey. Ten Principles for Reinventing America’s Suburban Business District. Washington: ULI – the Urban Land Institute, 2002.
“Business Incentives: Introduction.” MEDC – Business Incentives, 2004.
Carrington, Don. “A Winning Strategy to Ax the Incentives.” The News & Observer, 6 August 1999.
“A Downtown Tax District Must Have Business Backing.” News & Record (Greensboro, NC), 21 March 2004, H2.
Enrich, Peter D. “Breaking the Incentive Cycle: A Role for the Courts.” Accountability: The Newsletter of the Business Incentives Clearinghouse, September 1999.
Filas, Lee. “Special Tax Zone for Water Park Moves Forward.” Chicago Daily Herald, 15 January 2004, News 4.
Hairston, Julie B. “Belt Line Tax District under Study.” The Atlanta Journal-Constitution, 13 May 2004, 2C.
Herszenhorn, David M. “A Special School District is Gone, but a Study Cites its Benefits.” The New York Times, 1 July 2004, 2B.
Hood, John. “Credits to the Supreme Court.” Carolina Journal Online, 14 June 2004.
Hough, Debbie. “Galesville to Vote on Special Tax District.” The Capital (Annapolis, MD), 24 March 2004, C3.
Houghton, Kimberly. “Town to Consider Special Tax District.” The Union Leader (Manchester, NH), 17 February 2004, B1.
Houstoun, Lawrence O., Jr. BIDs: Business Improvement Districts. Washington: ULI – the Urban Land Institute, 2003.
“Incentives Structuring & Negotiating.” Incentis Group: Incentives Structuring & Negotiating, 2004.
Kiesewetter, John. “Bulter County to Create Special Tax Districts.” The Cincinnati Enquirer, 7 May 2004.
LaFaive, Michael D. “Are Targeted Incentives Constitutional?” Mackinac Center for Public Policy – Economic Development, 1 December 2003.
“Program Purpose and Description” and “Eligibility.” Michigan Economic Growth Authority (MEGA).
“Regional Special Districts.” About St. Louis: Government.
Rein, Lisa. “Virginia Landowners Offer Special Tax to Revive Metro Dulles Route.” The Washington Post, 22 January 2004, B01.
Stam, Paul and Tom Vass. “Targeted Business Incentives are Bad Public Policy.” Paul Stam - Articles. 19 February 2003.
“Tax Districts, Special.” The Handbook of Texas Online. 23 July 2003.
“Tax Cuts.” MEDC – Tax Cuts, 2004.
Weiss, Eric M. “Gainesville Tax District Proposed.” The Washington Post, 24 June 2004, T01.
“What are Business Improvement Districts?” What are BIDs? 26 April 1999.
[1] “Tax Districts, Special,” The Handbook of Texas Online, 23 July 2003,
[2] CORE has coordinated several Downtown Development Authorities (DDA) Michigan bills which have recently passed the state Senate in June 2004 (SB1201, SB1202, SB1203 and SB1240).
[3] “Program Purpose and Description” and “Eligibility,” Michigan Economic Growth Authority (MEGA),
[4] “Tax Cuts,” MEDC – Tax Cuts, 2004,
[5] Michael D. LaFaive, “Are Targeted Incentives Constitutional?” Mackinac Center for Public Policy – Economic Development, 1 December 2003,
[6] “Business Incentives: Introduction,” MEDC – Business Incentives, 2004,
[7] John Hood, “Credits to the Supreme Court,” Carolina Journal Online, 14 June 2004,
[8] Don Carrington, “A Winning Strategy to Ax the Incentives,” The News & Observer, 6 August 1999.
[9] Paul Stam and Tom Vass, “Targeted Business Incentives are Bad Public Policy” Paul Stam – Articles, 19 February 2003,
[10] Stam and Vaas, par. 30.
[11] Peter D. Enrich, “Breaking the Incentive Cycle: A Role for the Courts,” Accountability: The Newsletter of the Business Incentives Clearinghouse, September 1999,
[12] “About Us,” NeighborWorks – About Us,
[13] “Incentives Structuring & Negotiating,” Incentis Group: Incentives Structuring & Negotiating, 2004,
[14] Julie B. Hairston, “Belt Line Tax District Under Study” The Atlanta Journal-Constitution, 13 May 2004, 2C.
[15] “A Downtown Tax District Must Have Business Backing,” News & Record (Greensboro, NC), 21 March 2004, H2.
[16] Eric M. Weiss, “Gainesville Tax District Proposed,” The Washington Post, 24 June 2004, T01.
[17] John Kiesewetter, “Bulter County to Create Special Tax Districts,” The Cincinnati Enquirer, 7 May 2004.
[18] Debbie Hough, “Galesville to Vote on Special Tax District,” The Capital (Annapolis, MD), 24 March 2004, C3.
[19] Kimberly Houghton, “Town to Consider Special Tax District,” The Union Leader (Manchester, NH), 17 February 2004, B1.
[20] Lee Filas, “Special Tax Zone for Water Park Moves Forward,” Chicago Daily Herald, 15 January 2004, News 4.
[21] Lisa Rein, “Virginia Landowners Offer Special Tax to Revive Metro Dulles Route,” The Washington Post, 22 January 2004, B01.
[22] Emily Berg, “Special Taxes to Pay for New Schools in Victorville, California,” Daily Press, 3 April 2004.
[23] David M. Herszenhorn, “A Special School District is Gone, but a Study Cites its Benefits,” The New York Times, 7 July 2004, B2.
[24] “Regional Special Districts,” About St. Louis: Government,
[26] Lawrence O. Houstoun, Jr., BIDs: Business Improvement Districts (Washington: ULI – the Urban Land Institute, 2003).
[27] Geoffrey Booth, Ten Principles for Reinventing America’s Suburban Business District (Washington: ULI – the Urban Land Institute, 2002).
[T1]Can be “Works Cited” or “References” also..
Culture, Space and Architecture?
Culture, Space and Architecture?
I. CULTURE+PERCEPTION=ARCHITECTURE [C+P=A]
II. ANTI-POLITICAL SPACE [Political Space]
III. ARCHITECTURE IS…[?]
5/4/2004 by Richard Hamming
I. CULTURE+PERCEPTION=ARCHITECTURE [C+P=A]
II. ANTI-POLITICAL SPACE [Political Space]
III. ARCHITECTURE IS…[?]
5/4/2004 by Richard Hamming
C+P=A
During the twentieth century, many different architectural theories emerged, evolved and disappeared from society in varying degrees. Society and culture of the United States and Europe had significant impact on these theories. The use and perception of space is also a source of influence toward these architectural theories. The first part of this paper will discuss this issue of how culture and the perception of space has influenced the making of architecture as the multiple theories and positions of thought and philosophy shifted over time.
Diana Agrest and Mario Gandelsonas wrote “In the last twenty years the production of ‘theories’ of architecture and design has dramatically accelerated in a way that emphasizes the particular role of architectural theory as it has been continuously developed over five centuries. The function of these ‘theories,’ now as always, has been to adapt architecture to the needs of Western social formations, serving as the connection between the overall structure of a society and its architecture. In this way architecture has been modified to respond to changing social demands; architecture thereby becoming assimilated to society through ‘theoretical’ operations” (Nesbitt, p. 112). These sentences relay how apparent the impact that society has on the formation and adaptation of architectural theories exists today.
Throughout the twentieth century many eras of architectural theories addressed the issue of culture and the perception of space. A list of these doctrines by David Smith Capon (p. 40) includes: Formalism, Minimalism, Mannerism, Functionalism, Rationalism, Brutalism, Historicism, Academicism, Post-Modernism, Semiology, Symbolism, Constructivism, Materialism, Organic Theory, Arts & Crafts, Methodology, Contextualism, Regionalism, Traditionalism, Neovernacular, the Picturesque, Humanism, Futurism, Radicalism, Deconstructivism, the Avante Garde, and Utopianism.
Modernist writers such as Walter Benjamin and Kenneth Frampton covered the span of time between the Enlightenment of the 1700’s through to the Industrial Age. This period sought a change in life, to gain a fresh start and part from tradition. The society was shifting from the countryside into villages and cities – this had a great impact on the perception of space and architecture. The establishment of the Bauhaus and the other ‘modern’ movements also incorporated relationships with the various cultures (such as the Russian Constructivists, the Italian Futurists, and the Dutch De Stijl). De Stijl called for “a balance between the individual and universal and for the liberation of art from both the constraints of tradition and the cult of individuality” (Frampton, p. 143). Futurists were “fundamentally opposed to culture” (Frampton, p. 85) – this opposition at the very least acknowledges that culture exists and has impact on architecture. They were merely choosing to consciously ignore it. Constructivists hoped to “reform society on a new class and functional basis; substitute power stations for cathedrals, technocrats for aristocrats” (Jencks, p. 37).
These theoretical and historical approaches to architecture over the decades have a strong link with the culture. Culture, in Scott’s words is “an organism with a life of its own” (Capon, p. 135). And “Mies van der Rohe wrote that “Greatness is not to express oneself, but to do what history demands should be done at a given moment” (Capon, p. 135). Determining what should be done seems to take away from the basic concept of having free will to do what one wants. If we are to merely conform to designing and providing what society and culture apparently demand at any given time, than how could anyone truly break from tradition and produce anything “new” or “modern”? David Smith Capon goes on to say that “the concept of truth…in relation to architectural thought is…a true reflection of its age and culture” (p. 135). The influence of culture apparently has continued hand-in-hand with many architectural theories during the twentieth century. “Paul Ricoeur’s distinction between culture (a local, particular phenomenon) and a dominant universal civilization is framed as an opposition between nature and technology” (Nesbitt, p. 469).
“Architecture builds, over and over, philosophically endorsed ideas of home, city, place…from this viewpoint, architecture is a deeply conservative force that keeps what is philosophically, politically, and ideologically ‘proper’ in place” (Diani, p. 2). In the contemporary cultural issue of phenomenology, space is described as unable to be read the same way that text is read. “It is more easily understood…when compared with texts written for the theatre, which are composed of dialogues, rather than with poetry or other literary texts, which are monologues” (Lefebvre in Leach, p. 142). Space can also become ‘culture itself’, according to Henri Lefebvre, when “toward the end of the period of accelerated growth, countries discover how spaces may be pressed into to services of cultural consumption and of the tourism and leisure industries” (Lefebvre in Leach, p. 143).
It seems safe to discern from the various theorists of the twentieth century that the perception of space and culture have had a significant impact on the making of architecture. The shifting positions from Walter Benjamin (Modernism) to Martin Heidegger and Henri Lefebvre (Phenomenology) to Roland Barthes (Structuralism) to Jean Baudrillard and Fredric Jameson (Post-Modernism) to finally, Andrew Benjamin, Jacques Derrida and Michael Foucault (Post-Structuralism) have portrayed how these shifts of architectural theory have maintained that connection to cultural impact.
Political Space
Fredric Jameson posed the question “Is Space Political?” in his short essay (Leach, p. 256). Both sides of this debate include many well-respected contemporary theorists who use their specific rationale for defending their opinions. Roland Barthes and Robert Venturi are among those whose researched thoughts and theories can be used to suggest that space is not political. Research into the opposition of this idea will be discussed and described here in the second part of this paper. “A second generation of Modern…architects’ preoccupation with space as the architectural quality caused them to read the buildings as forms, the piazzas as space, and the graphics and sculpture as color, texture, and scale” (Venturi, p. 104).
Theoretical and philosophical writings on Structuralism and Semiotics address this concept of space not being political. Semiotics can be defined as “the theory of the different systems of signs” and “is considered to be only a first stage towards a future general theory of ideologies” (Nesbitt, p. 115). Semiotics is also associated with “studying all cultural phenomena as if they were systems of signs – on the hypothesis that all cultural phenomena are, in reality, systems of signs, or that culture can be understood as communication – then one of the fields in which it will undoubtedly find itself most challenged is that of architecture” (Gottdiener, p. 56). [The relationship of semiotics to architecture is fairly complex, but is broken down into a logical process in Barthes’ and Venturi’s readings from class].
The French literary critic Roland Barthes is dubbed the “founder of modern semiology” by Sonia Maasik and Jack Solomon (p. 95). “Barthes is primarily known for his interpretative work on literature, but his multi-disciplinary ability – embracing photography, music, the novel and poetry, and popular culture – gives him a good field position…” (Riley, p. 56). Barthes wrote about Paris’ most well know sign: the Eiffel Tower. The semiotics of this structure have become “incorporated into daily life until you can no longer grant it any specific attribute…it is as literal as a phenomenon of nature whose meaning can be questioned to infinity but whose existence is incontestable” (Barthes in Leach, p. 172). Signs become symbols of daily life and specific to different cultures rather than relying on hidden political agendas. The Eiffel Tower is essentially a monument, “an utterly useless monument” (Barthes in Leach, p.173), which has no function other than to gain a great panoramic view of Paris.
Other examples of well-know signs in the twentieth century culture can be found in Las Vegas. Space created by architecture is intended to be “sacred” (Venturi, p. 7). The mixing and dilution of architectural styles throughout the city have created more of a series of signs that are further highlighted by the actual signs along the street. “This architecture of styles and signs is antispatial; it is an architecture of communication over space; communication dominates space as an element in the architecture and in the landscape” (Venturi, p. 8). Here, signage is primarily used for guiding and directing the passerby into the hotels and casinos. The spaces created by many of these structures are also monuments, or signs, themselves. This city is built upon the dream of “getting rich quick” rather than tying itself into the political arguments of space supported by Peter Eisenman and Bernard Tschumi. Colquhoun wrote that “form was merely the result of a logical process by which the operational needs and the operational techniques were brought together. Ultimately these would fuse in a kind of biological extension of life, and function and technology would become transparent” (Venturi, p. 133). This fusion appears to be merely between space and forms themselves with the people who use the spaces; this relationship does not appear to associate itself with postmodern thoughts of political space. As stated in class on April 6th: by itself space is not political – you have to apply something to it.
?
The eternal question asked in architectural schools all around the world: What is architecture? This question, or any other “what is…?” question, is repeated every generation throughout history, and even more amazing is how this same question can have an unlimited array of correct answers. Part three of this paper will be an attempt to describe and formulate a concept for answering this question.
Walter Gropius stated that “Architecture is said to be the true mirror of the life and social behavior of the period” (Capon, p. 136). Giedion wrote that “Architecture reflects the condition of the age from which it springs…social, economic, scientific, technological, ethnological” (Capon, p. 136). And Ruskin’s viewed architecture as “the embodiment of the Polity, Life, History and Religious Faith of a Nation” (Capon, p. 136). These are all great examples of helping to define what architecture is – but what about today, in 2004, in the United States? Reyner Banham, in 1965, stated that “left to their own devices, Americans do not monumentalize or make architecture” (p. 56). Despite Banham’s apparent dislike for Americans, architecture can be defined in today’s culture. Architects today need to regain the lost “dominance over the field” and regain control of the “over-all design” (Banham, p. 98).
A starting point may be Paul Jay’s reference to architecture being “the art and science of constructing buildings” as well as “a social institution that orders and regulates the nature of buildings and how we think and experience them” (Diani, p. 26). It was stated in class January 27th that art is not relative or necessary for architecture. I would disagree with this opinion; architecture without art is simply building. We wouldn’t need architects to construct buildings – engineers could do that. If society simply perceived architects as professionals who provided ‘blueprints’ for contractors to construct buildings, architecture would be in serious trouble. I don’t pretend that this perception doesn’t exist today, but I believe optimistically that the majority of society would seek an architect to provide them with a unique architectural form to meet their specific needs. People, at least subconsciously, are aware of how spaces and buildings can “feel” right or “look” right. This experience lends to their appreciation of the architect. Bernard Tschumi wrote that “architecture is a function of both…the sensual experience of a real space” and “the appreciation of rational concepts” (Nesbitt, p. 538).
Architecture blends the engineering necessities of the structure and mechanical and electrical systems with the artistic aspects of acknowledging the site, complementing its surroundings, incorporating the aesthetical detailing with any art or sculptural elements, creating an experience pleasing to the user of the space (or simply viewing it from a distance), and utilizing the space to efficiently meet the requirements of the owner. Architecture is complex. It cannot be simplified into a dictionary definition such as the art or science of building. The theory of what architecture is will continue to shift and change over the years, as it always has. It will be interesting to see how future technology will affect the realm of architecture.
Works Cited
Banham, Reyner. Design by Choice. New York: Rizzoli International Publications, Inc., 1981.
Capon, David Smith. Architectural Theory Volume Two (Le Corbusier’s Legacy): Principles of Twentieth-century Architectural Theory Arranged by Category. Chichester, England: John Wiley & Sons Ltd., 1999.
Diani, Marco and Catherine Ingraham. Restructuring Architectural Theory. Evanston, IL: Northwestern University Press, 1988.
Frampton, Kenneth. Modern Architecture: A Critical History. New York: Thames and Hudson Inc., 1996.
Gottdiener, M. and Alexandros Ph. Lagopoulos. The City and the Sign: An Introduction to Urban Semiotics. New York: Columbia University Press, 1986.
Jencks, Charles. The Language of Post-Modern Architecture. New York: Rizzoli International Publications, Inc., 1991.
Leach, Neil. Rethinking Architecture: a Reader in Cultural Theory. New York: Routledge, 1997.
Maasik, Sonia and Jack Solomon. Signs of Life in the U.S.A.: Readings on Popular Culture for Writers. Boston: Bedford Books of St. Martin’s Press, 1994.
Nesbitt, Kate. Theorizing a New Agenda for Architecture: An Anthology of Architectural Theory 1965-1995. New York: Princeton Architectural Press, 1996.
Riley, Charles A. II. Color Codes: Modern Theories of Color in Philosophy, Painting and Architecture, Literature, Music, and Psychology. Hanover, NH: University Press of New England, 1995.
Venturi, Robert, Denise Scott Brown and Steven Izenour. Learning From Las Vegas: The Forgotten Symbolism of Architectural Form. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press, 1977.
“De Stijl en Andere Vroege Gadachte van de Twintigste Eeuw”
“De Stijl en Andere Vroege Gadachte van de Twintigste Eeuw”
De Stijl and Other Early Twentieth Century Thought
De Stijl and Other Early Twentieth Century Thought
2/24/2004 by Richard Hamming
In the early 20th century, several architectural thoughts emerged throughout Europe to develop new processes, and a ‘new reality’ for the built environment. The major examples of this during this time period were the Bauhaus, Constructivism, Futurism, Purism and De Stijl. [I chose to concentrate on De Stijl, Futurism and Constructivism instead of focusing on the Bauhaus since, in my opinion, more people are familiar with the works and thoughts of Walter Gropius and the Bauhaus.]
The movement in the Netherlands from 1917 to 1931 was called De Stijl and initially revolved around two painters, Theo van Doesburg and Piet Mondrian, and an architect/cabinet-maker named Gerrit Rietveld (Frampton, p. 142). Very little architecture was actually brought to realization during the “early phases of De Stijl”; the first structure associated with this movement was a villa from 1916 by Robert van’t Hoff who had been heavily influenced by Frank Lloyd Wright (Frampton, p. 143).
The first manifesto of De Stijl from 1918 sought to redefine architecture and create a ‘new reality’ by “calling for a new balance between the individual and universal and for the liberation of art from both the constraints of tradition and the cult of individuality” (Frampton, p. 142). This statement seems to describe how the writers truly thought that there was no longer room for individuality and uniqueness in art and architecture; they seemed to think that they had discovered real ‘architecture’ was and proceeded to influence, and be influenced by, the other major architectural thoughts of the time period. As the De Stijl movement incorporated more of the “Neo-Plastic ideal of uniting the arts and transcending the division of art and life,” Van Doesburg wrote: “If the means of expression are liberated from all particularity, they are in harmony with the ultimate end of art, which is to realize a universal language” (Frampton, p. 148).
Specific design styles of De Stijl, as they developed from thought into reality (the realization of art and architecture), have distinct attributes that differentiate this movement from the others in the early 20th century. The bright colors often used in furniture and architectural elements such as awnings have been described as “violent red, blue and yellow set in angst-ridden dissonance” (Jencks, p. 142). The color palette of De Stijl was restricted to primary colors by the influence of mathematician M. H. Schoenmaekers from his term ‘Neo-Plasticism’ (Frampton, p. 142-3). De Stijl architecture has also been described as “metaphysical space” (Frampton, p. 164) and “complex spatial and formal asymmetries” (Jencks, p. 127).
Preceding the Dutch De Stijl movement was the anti-culture ‘movement’ in Italy called Futurism started in 1909. According to Joshua Taylor: “Futurism was an impulse rather than a style” and was “fundamentally opposed to culture” (Frampton, p. 85). Major players in this movement were Antonio Sant’Elia, Umberto Boccioni, and Filippo Marinetti. The Futurists redefined the ‘reality’ of modern architecture by “gleaning every benefit of science and technology… establishing new forms, new lines, new reasons for existence” (Frampton, p. 87). Sant’Elia spoke about how architecture “must be ‘similar to a gigantic machine’, made ‘of concrete, of glass, of iron, without painting or sculpture’” (Pevsner, p. 37). These ideas seem to be visible in today’s society of always striving to use the most current technology and techniques.
The time period following the height of Futurism, however, produced critics of the movement stating that Futurism “was a contrived impetus and a vain, destructive fury, mingling good and bad elements” (Frampton, p. 203). Later still, during the Fascist era of Italy, Futurism was described as a “machine cult” (Frampton, p. 215). The Futurist, Marinetti, was even described as having a “sinister side” to his work which allowed Walter Benjamin to study fascism and war as being ‘celebrated’ and “beautiful, because it establishes man’s dominion over the subjugated machinery” (Leach, p. 21). These links between fascism, war and architecture, related to the Futurist movement is disturbing and was further discussed after Sarajevo by Lebbes Woods: “War is architecture, and architecture is war!” (Leach, p. 27).
Architectural influence from this example of ‘new reality’ could be found decades later (1970’s) and described as “all [components] are movable and express their movability” (Tzonis/Lefaivre, p. 88). Also, in the 1980’s, Futurists (and Constructivists) influence produced “precedents of exploding, of displacement, of the breaking up of the continuity of form” (Tzonis/Lefaivre, p. 222). ‘Modern consciousness’ of the Futurist’s ‘new reality’ is apparent as later 20th century architects and writers still refer to and borrow statements such as “the primitives of a new sensibility” (Jencks, p. 54).
Also during the early 20th century in Russia emerged the movement of Constructivism. After 1919, the Constructivists “took up the early militant modernism of [Futurists] Marinetti, Boccioni and Sant’Elia” (Frampton, p. 88). Constructivist architecture was supported by the younger generation because of its “commitment to free-floating asymmetry and technical innovation” (Frampton, p. 160). The common “dynamic forms” (Frampton, p. 202), “objectivity” (Frampton, p. 163), and “appeals to disorganization” (Tzonis/Lefaivre, p. 20) describe some of the common attributes and opinions of Constructivist architecture. Along with the Productivists, the Constructivists considered “’intellectual materials’, such as color, line, point, and plane, and ‘physical materials’, such as iron, glass and wood, as thematically equal elements” (Frampton, p. 170).
A major theoretical thread tying the early 20th century architectural thoughts together was to totally separate itself from the past’s classical, geometric design. Often “fragmented, anti-classical geometry” (Tzonis/Lefaivre, p. 261) was apparent throughout Constructivist design as well as the “complex spatial and formal asymmetries” (Jencks, p. 127) found in De Stijl. The major players of these movements (De Stijl, Futurism, and Constructivism), along with those of Purism and the Bauhaus, had various degrees of influence on each other since many of the architects and artists had worked with each other at some time [for example, Van Doesburg stayed within the Bauhaus in 1921] (Frampton, p. 144). These thoughts generated what can be described as the ‘new reality’ for redefining architecture into the current (modern) time.
Works Cited
Frampton, Kenneth. Modern Architecture: A Critical History. New York: Thames and Hudson Inc., 1996.
Jencks, Charles. The Language of Post-Modern Architecture. New York: Rizzoli International Publications, Inc., 1991.
Leach, Neil. The Anaesthetics of Architecture. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press, 2000.
Pevsner, Nikolaus. Pioneers of Modern Architecture: From Walter Morris to Walter Gropius. New York: Penguin Books USA Inc., 1991.
Tzonis, Alexander and Lefaivre, Liane. Architecture in Europe since 1968: Memory and Invention. New York: Rizzoli International Publications, Inc., 1992.
The movement in the Netherlands from 1917 to 1931 was called De Stijl and initially revolved around two painters, Theo van Doesburg and Piet Mondrian, and an architect/cabinet-maker named Gerrit Rietveld (Frampton, p. 142). Very little architecture was actually brought to realization during the “early phases of De Stijl”; the first structure associated with this movement was a villa from 1916 by Robert van’t Hoff who had been heavily influenced by Frank Lloyd Wright (Frampton, p. 143).
The first manifesto of De Stijl from 1918 sought to redefine architecture and create a ‘new reality’ by “calling for a new balance between the individual and universal and for the liberation of art from both the constraints of tradition and the cult of individuality” (Frampton, p. 142). This statement seems to describe how the writers truly thought that there was no longer room for individuality and uniqueness in art and architecture; they seemed to think that they had discovered real ‘architecture’ was and proceeded to influence, and be influenced by, the other major architectural thoughts of the time period. As the De Stijl movement incorporated more of the “Neo-Plastic ideal of uniting the arts and transcending the division of art and life,” Van Doesburg wrote: “If the means of expression are liberated from all particularity, they are in harmony with the ultimate end of art, which is to realize a universal language” (Frampton, p. 148).
Specific design styles of De Stijl, as they developed from thought into reality (the realization of art and architecture), have distinct attributes that differentiate this movement from the others in the early 20th century. The bright colors often used in furniture and architectural elements such as awnings have been described as “violent red, blue and yellow set in angst-ridden dissonance” (Jencks, p. 142). The color palette of De Stijl was restricted to primary colors by the influence of mathematician M. H. Schoenmaekers from his term ‘Neo-Plasticism’ (Frampton, p. 142-3). De Stijl architecture has also been described as “metaphysical space” (Frampton, p. 164) and “complex spatial and formal asymmetries” (Jencks, p. 127).
Preceding the Dutch De Stijl movement was the anti-culture ‘movement’ in Italy called Futurism started in 1909. According to Joshua Taylor: “Futurism was an impulse rather than a style” and was “fundamentally opposed to culture” (Frampton, p. 85). Major players in this movement were Antonio Sant’Elia, Umberto Boccioni, and Filippo Marinetti. The Futurists redefined the ‘reality’ of modern architecture by “gleaning every benefit of science and technology… establishing new forms, new lines, new reasons for existence” (Frampton, p. 87). Sant’Elia spoke about how architecture “must be ‘similar to a gigantic machine’, made ‘of concrete, of glass, of iron, without painting or sculpture’” (Pevsner, p. 37). These ideas seem to be visible in today’s society of always striving to use the most current technology and techniques.
The time period following the height of Futurism, however, produced critics of the movement stating that Futurism “was a contrived impetus and a vain, destructive fury, mingling good and bad elements” (Frampton, p. 203). Later still, during the Fascist era of Italy, Futurism was described as a “machine cult” (Frampton, p. 215). The Futurist, Marinetti, was even described as having a “sinister side” to his work which allowed Walter Benjamin to study fascism and war as being ‘celebrated’ and “beautiful, because it establishes man’s dominion over the subjugated machinery” (Leach, p. 21). These links between fascism, war and architecture, related to the Futurist movement is disturbing and was further discussed after Sarajevo by Lebbes Woods: “War is architecture, and architecture is war!” (Leach, p. 27).
Architectural influence from this example of ‘new reality’ could be found decades later (1970’s) and described as “all [components] are movable and express their movability” (Tzonis/Lefaivre, p. 88). Also, in the 1980’s, Futurists (and Constructivists) influence produced “precedents of exploding, of displacement, of the breaking up of the continuity of form” (Tzonis/Lefaivre, p. 222). ‘Modern consciousness’ of the Futurist’s ‘new reality’ is apparent as later 20th century architects and writers still refer to and borrow statements such as “the primitives of a new sensibility” (Jencks, p. 54).
Also during the early 20th century in Russia emerged the movement of Constructivism. After 1919, the Constructivists “took up the early militant modernism of [Futurists] Marinetti, Boccioni and Sant’Elia” (Frampton, p. 88). Constructivist architecture was supported by the younger generation because of its “commitment to free-floating asymmetry and technical innovation” (Frampton, p. 160). The common “dynamic forms” (Frampton, p. 202), “objectivity” (Frampton, p. 163), and “appeals to disorganization” (Tzonis/Lefaivre, p. 20) describe some of the common attributes and opinions of Constructivist architecture. Along with the Productivists, the Constructivists considered “’intellectual materials’, such as color, line, point, and plane, and ‘physical materials’, such as iron, glass and wood, as thematically equal elements” (Frampton, p. 170).
A major theoretical thread tying the early 20th century architectural thoughts together was to totally separate itself from the past’s classical, geometric design. Often “fragmented, anti-classical geometry” (Tzonis/Lefaivre, p. 261) was apparent throughout Constructivist design as well as the “complex spatial and formal asymmetries” (Jencks, p. 127) found in De Stijl. The major players of these movements (De Stijl, Futurism, and Constructivism), along with those of Purism and the Bauhaus, had various degrees of influence on each other since many of the architects and artists had worked with each other at some time [for example, Van Doesburg stayed within the Bauhaus in 1921] (Frampton, p. 144). These thoughts generated what can be described as the ‘new reality’ for redefining architecture into the current (modern) time.
Works Cited
Frampton, Kenneth. Modern Architecture: A Critical History. New York: Thames and Hudson Inc., 1996.
Jencks, Charles. The Language of Post-Modern Architecture. New York: Rizzoli International Publications, Inc., 1991.
Leach, Neil. The Anaesthetics of Architecture. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press, 2000.
Pevsner, Nikolaus. Pioneers of Modern Architecture: From Walter Morris to Walter Gropius. New York: Penguin Books USA Inc., 1991.
Tzonis, Alexander and Lefaivre, Liane. Architecture in Europe since 1968: Memory and Invention. New York: Rizzoli International Publications, Inc., 1992.
“Mental Coordinate System”
“Mental Coordinate System”
Peter Eisenman’s House VI and Steven Holl’s Stretto House
2/3/2004 by Richard Hamming
“Post-Modern space is more an elaboration of the Cartesian grid than an organic ordering…houses always keep a mental coordinate system no matter how free-form and baroque they become” (Jencks, p. 96).
Kicking off the simplistic straight lines and box houses of the “Late Modern” period in the late 1960’s was the New York Five: Peter Eisenman, Michael Graves, Charles Gwathmey, John Hejduk and Richard Meier (Whiffen, p. 287). They initiated a revival of Le Corbusier’s style from the 1920’s, but “the houses they designed were not so much imitations as complications of the prototypes, which had an essential simplicity (Whiffen, p. 287). These Post-Modern architects evolved qualities from Modernism, mainly developed by Le Corbusier, such as layering and compaction composition” (Jencks, p. 96). Eisenman took these ideas and concepts and multiplied them seemingly indefinitely; Charles Jencks (p. 96) continued to state strong descriptive terms and phrases such as “a major traffic accident of collisions” and “a patch-work quilt” to describe Eisenman’s houses.
Eisenman’s House VI, built in 1975 in West Cornwall, Connecticut, stands out from its wooded setting and holds to the Modernist position of portraying no indication of a regional style (Jencks, p. 96). It is interesting how Eisenman designed this house to be able to turned and viewed from any angle or perspective and still basically be perceived the same. This “complex three-dimensional game” still maintains the geometry and isometrics from the 1920s (Huxtable, p. 52). The house seems to “exploit and transform the formal qualities of regular solids…with all their linguistic, syntactic meta-references” (Rowe, p. 131).
The geometric and linear shapes of the house keep your eye continuously moving and create a surreal experience of “Escher-like tricks” (Jencks, p. 97). Kenneth Frampton (p. 312) criticizes Eisenman’s “arbitrary overlays of different grids…irrespective of whether these happen to have any connection with the real context.” Essentially, Eisenman’s Purist language is Modernist, but his “semantic use of this language is Post-Modern; while his exclusive concern for syntax and contempt for function are Modern, the ambiguity and sensuality of his spatial inventions are Post-Modern” (Jencks, p. 98).
Holl’s Stretto House, built in 1992 near Dallas, Texas, is very conscience of its site and also utilizes many planar and linear elements. The initial concept was developed from the musical term “stretto” which Holl related to the site’s existing three overlapping ponds (Holl, p. 7). He was inspired by one specific piece of music (Bela Bartok’s Music for Strings, Percussion, and Celeste), which contains four distinct movements; “where music has a materiality in instrumentation and sound this architecture attempts an analog in light and space” (Holl, p. 7).
This house has some similarities in appearance to Eisenman’s House VI, including the geometric elements and planar, cube shapes. Differences seem to be more prevalent, however. Holl’s Stretto House is very aware of its site, whereas Eisenman avoided this context. The “Texas Stretto House” also utilizes curved planar roof elements and covers a much larger, and longer, area of the site instead of a more cube-shape building. Various interior views of Holl’s house are reminiscent of Eisenman’s House VI: the geometric elements and clean lines can make one question which direction is up. “The plan is purely orthogonal, while the section is curvilinear. The guest house is an inversion” (Holl, p. 7).
Holl also based his design concept on idea and phenomena: an overall idea that creates causes and effects with the functional and physical elements, and “the concept transcends the abstract, organizing the experimental phenomena” (Holl, p. 9).
Although Peter Eisenman’s House VI and Steven Holl’s Stretto House were conceived, designed, and built in different decades, apparent similarities between the two can be perceived throughout their uses of geometric shapes. The differences may be due to the time gap and theoretical mindsets of architects who they use as inspiration from past design eras. But since both Eisenman and Holl are still practicing today, this “gap” may not really exist.
Works Cited
Frampton, Kenneth. Modern Architecture: A Critical History. New York: Thames and Hudson Inc., 1996.
Holl, Steven. Stretto House: Steven Holl Architects. New York: The Monacelli Press, Inc., 1996.
Huxtable, Ada Louise. Kicked a Building Lately? Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1988.
Jencks, Charles. The Language of Post-Modern Architecture. New York: Rizzoli International Publications, Inc., 1991.
Rowe, Peter G. Design Thinking. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press, 1994.
Whiffen, Marcus. American Architecture Since 1780: A Guide to the Styles. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press, 1993.
“Post-Modern space is more an elaboration of the Cartesian grid than an organic ordering…houses always keep a mental coordinate system no matter how free-form and baroque they become” (Jencks, p. 96).
Kicking off the simplistic straight lines and box houses of the “Late Modern” period in the late 1960’s was the New York Five: Peter Eisenman, Michael Graves, Charles Gwathmey, John Hejduk and Richard Meier (Whiffen, p. 287). They initiated a revival of Le Corbusier’s style from the 1920’s, but “the houses they designed were not so much imitations as complications of the prototypes, which had an essential simplicity (Whiffen, p. 287). These Post-Modern architects evolved qualities from Modernism, mainly developed by Le Corbusier, such as layering and compaction composition” (Jencks, p. 96). Eisenman took these ideas and concepts and multiplied them seemingly indefinitely; Charles Jencks (p. 96) continued to state strong descriptive terms and phrases such as “a major traffic accident of collisions” and “a patch-work quilt” to describe Eisenman’s houses.
Eisenman’s House VI, built in 1975 in West Cornwall, Connecticut, stands out from its wooded setting and holds to the Modernist position of portraying no indication of a regional style (Jencks, p. 96). It is interesting how Eisenman designed this house to be able to turned and viewed from any angle or perspective and still basically be perceived the same. This “complex three-dimensional game” still maintains the geometry and isometrics from the 1920s (Huxtable, p. 52). The house seems to “exploit and transform the formal qualities of regular solids…with all their linguistic, syntactic meta-references” (Rowe, p. 131).
The geometric and linear shapes of the house keep your eye continuously moving and create a surreal experience of “Escher-like tricks” (Jencks, p. 97). Kenneth Frampton (p. 312) criticizes Eisenman’s “arbitrary overlays of different grids…irrespective of whether these happen to have any connection with the real context.” Essentially, Eisenman’s Purist language is Modernist, but his “semantic use of this language is Post-Modern; while his exclusive concern for syntax and contempt for function are Modern, the ambiguity and sensuality of his spatial inventions are Post-Modern” (Jencks, p. 98).
Holl’s Stretto House, built in 1992 near Dallas, Texas, is very conscience of its site and also utilizes many planar and linear elements. The initial concept was developed from the musical term “stretto” which Holl related to the site’s existing three overlapping ponds (Holl, p. 7). He was inspired by one specific piece of music (Bela Bartok’s Music for Strings, Percussion, and Celeste), which contains four distinct movements; “where music has a materiality in instrumentation and sound this architecture attempts an analog in light and space” (Holl, p. 7).
This house has some similarities in appearance to Eisenman’s House VI, including the geometric elements and planar, cube shapes. Differences seem to be more prevalent, however. Holl’s Stretto House is very aware of its site, whereas Eisenman avoided this context. The “Texas Stretto House” also utilizes curved planar roof elements and covers a much larger, and longer, area of the site instead of a more cube-shape building. Various interior views of Holl’s house are reminiscent of Eisenman’s House VI: the geometric elements and clean lines can make one question which direction is up. “The plan is purely orthogonal, while the section is curvilinear. The guest house is an inversion” (Holl, p. 7).
Holl also based his design concept on idea and phenomena: an overall idea that creates causes and effects with the functional and physical elements, and “the concept transcends the abstract, organizing the experimental phenomena” (Holl, p. 9).
Although Peter Eisenman’s House VI and Steven Holl’s Stretto House were conceived, designed, and built in different decades, apparent similarities between the two can be perceived throughout their uses of geometric shapes. The differences may be due to the time gap and theoretical mindsets of architects who they use as inspiration from past design eras. But since both Eisenman and Holl are still practicing today, this “gap” may not really exist.
Works Cited
Frampton, Kenneth. Modern Architecture: A Critical History. New York: Thames and Hudson Inc., 1996.
Holl, Steven. Stretto House: Steven Holl Architects. New York: The Monacelli Press, Inc., 1996.
Huxtable, Ada Louise. Kicked a Building Lately? Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1988.
Jencks, Charles. The Language of Post-Modern Architecture. New York: Rizzoli International Publications, Inc., 1991.
Rowe, Peter G. Design Thinking. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press, 1994.
Whiffen, Marcus. American Architecture Since 1780: A Guide to the Styles. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press, 1993.
Not the same God
I did a little studying of various cults about 4 years ago. I ended up purchasing a book by Walter Martin entitled The Kingdom of the Cults. This particular copy is the "Revised, Updated, and Expanded Anniversary Edition" from 1997. Appendix D discusses Islam. I thought that I'd share a short passage under the heading of Islamic Beliefs:
"At first glance, Islamic belief appears to be almost compatible with Christianity and/or Judaism. Often people claim that the Muslims believe in the same god as Christians: 'They just don't accept Jesus Christ.' However, as we shall see, the Muslim god is not like the Christian God. Islam rejects the biblical doctrines of the Trinity and the deity of Christ."
I will likely share more of this, as well as other imformation in the future. This is my attempt to share and inform people of the truth.
"The Word of Life"
If you are curious about getting into the Bible and don't know where to begin, then I would suggest 1 John. The following is this first four verses as found in the NIV:
"That which was from the beginning, which we have heard, which we have seen with our own eyes, which we have looked at and our hands have touched - this we proclaim concerning the Word of life."
"The life appeared; we have seen it and testify to it, and we proclaim to you the eternal life, which was with the Father and has appeared to us."
"We proclaim to you what we have seen and heard, so that you also may have fellowship with us. And our fellowship is with the Father and with his Son."
"We write this to may our joy complete."
Thursday, June 21, 2007
Words of wisdom
Live a life of joy.
Be fully dependent on God.
Learn to be under God's control.
Have a pure heart.
Meek does not mean weak.
Be rich toward God.
Love=obedience.
Stay connected to the vine.
The world is hostile toward God.
Jesus is our protector.
God is in control.
Jesus' last need (thirst) is our first spiritual need.
Rejoice greatly in the Lord.
Trials are from God; temptations are from satan.
Feed faith, starve doubt.
God knows what to give (a gift) and how to give it.
Keep your eyes on Jesus.
Faith+Deeds=Life.
Genuine faith in Christ Jesus will provide good deeds.
Goodness=virtue.
Be fully dependent on God.
Learn to be under God's control.
Have a pure heart.
Meek does not mean weak.
Be rich toward God.
Love=obedience.
Stay connected to the vine.
The world is hostile toward God.
Jesus is our protector.
God is in control.
Jesus' last need (thirst) is our first spiritual need.
Rejoice greatly in the Lord.
Trials are from God; temptations are from satan.
Feed faith, starve doubt.
God knows what to give (a gift) and how to give it.
Keep your eyes on Jesus.
Faith+Deeds=Life.
Genuine faith in Christ Jesus will provide good deeds.
Goodness=virtue.
Have a living hope in Christ.
This is the account of...
ADAM: "This is the account of the heavens and the earth when they were created" (Genesis 2:4).
NOAH: "This is the written account of Adam's line" (Genesis 5:1a). And "This is the account of Noah" (Genesis 6:9a).
SHEM, HAM & JAPHETH: "The is the account of Shem, Ham and Japheth, Noah's sons, who themselves had sons after the flood" (Genesis 10:1).
SHEM: "This is the account of Shem" (Genesis 11:10a).
TERAH: "This is the account of Terah" (Genesis 11:27).
ISHMAEL: "This is the account of Abraham's son Ishmael, whom Sarah's maidservant, Hagar the Egyptian, bore to Abraham" (Genesis 25:12).
ISAAC: "This is the account of Abraham's son Isaac" (Genesis 25:19a).
ESAU: "This is the account of Esau (that is, Edom)" (Genesis 36:1).
JACOB: "This is the account of Jacob" (Genesis 37:2a).
Tuesday, June 19, 2007
Recommended Reading (part 1)
· ACLU vs America by Alan Sears & Craig Osten
· Whoever Controls the Schools Rules the World by Gary DeMar
· The Harsh Truth About Public Schools by Bruce Shortt
· Hollywood Worldviews by Brian Godawa
· Home School Heroes: The Struggle & Triumph of Homeschooling in America by Christopher Klicka
· The Marketing of Evil by David Kupelian
· The Politically Incorrect Guide to Islam (and the Crusades) by Robert Spencer
· The Politically Incorrect Guide to The South (and Why it Will Rise Again) by Clint Johnson
· The Politically Incorrect Guide to Global Warming and Environmentalism by Christopher C. Horner
· The Puzzle of Ancient Man by Donald E. Chittick
· The Day and the Hour by Francis X. Gumerlock
· The Early Church and the “End of the World” Gary DeMar & Francis X. Chittick
· Foes From the Northern Frontier by Edwin Yamauchi
· Four Views on the Book of Revelation by C. Marvin Pate
· The Hope of the Gospel by Vic Reasoner
· What Darwin Didn’t Know by Geoffrey Simmons
· The Christian Life and Character by Benjamin F. Morris
· Evangelical Ethics by John Jefferson Davis
· Idols for Destruction by Herbert Schlossberg
· Whoever Controls the Schools Rules the World by Gary DeMar
· Exhaustive Concordance to the United States Constitution
· The Federalist Papers by Mary E. Webster
· The Importance of the Electoral College by George Grant
· American Dictionary of the English Language by Noah Webster
· Annals of the World by James Ussher
· One Nation Under Man? by Brannon Howse
· The Story of In God We Trust by John Hudson Tiner
· The War Between the States: America’s Uncivil War by John J. Dwyer
· The New-England Primer
· The Original Blue Back Speller
· Whoever Controls the Schools Rules the World by Gary DeMar
· The Harsh Truth About Public Schools by Bruce Shortt
· Hollywood Worldviews by Brian Godawa
· Home School Heroes: The Struggle & Triumph of Homeschooling in America by Christopher Klicka
· The Marketing of Evil by David Kupelian
· The Politically Incorrect Guide to Islam (and the Crusades) by Robert Spencer
· The Politically Incorrect Guide to The South (and Why it Will Rise Again) by Clint Johnson
· The Politically Incorrect Guide to Global Warming and Environmentalism by Christopher C. Horner
· The Puzzle of Ancient Man by Donald E. Chittick
· The Day and the Hour by Francis X. Gumerlock
· The Early Church and the “End of the World” Gary DeMar & Francis X. Chittick
· Foes From the Northern Frontier by Edwin Yamauchi
· Four Views on the Book of Revelation by C. Marvin Pate
· The Hope of the Gospel by Vic Reasoner
· What Darwin Didn’t Know by Geoffrey Simmons
· The Christian Life and Character by Benjamin F. Morris
· Evangelical Ethics by John Jefferson Davis
· Idols for Destruction by Herbert Schlossberg
· Whoever Controls the Schools Rules the World by Gary DeMar
· Exhaustive Concordance to the United States Constitution
· The Federalist Papers by Mary E. Webster
· The Importance of the Electoral College by George Grant
· American Dictionary of the English Language by Noah Webster
· Annals of the World by James Ussher
· One Nation Under Man? by Brannon Howse
· The Story of In God We Trust by John Hudson Tiner
· The War Between the States: America’s Uncivil War by John J. Dwyer
· The New-England Primer
· The Original Blue Back Speller
· It’s Time to Un-Quo The Status by Buddy Hanson
God's 5 Promises to Israel
From Zion's Fire magazine (vol. 16, no. 5, p. 19). The following are God's five promises to Israel, as found in the book of Genesis 28:15.
THE DIVINE PRESENCE
"I am with thee"
THE DIVINE PROTECTION
"I will keep thee"
THE DIVINE PROMISE
"I will bring thee again"
THE DIVINE PLEDGE
"I will not leave thee"
THE DIVINE GUARANTEE
"Until I have done that which I have spoken to thee of"
6-Step Program
From Psalm 34:
- Extol the Lord
- Praise the Lord
- Boast in the Lord
- Rejoice in the Lord
- Glorify the Lord
- Exalt his name!
Strength, Song & Salvation
I was recently reading backwards through the book of Psalms. One particular verse really struck me. In Psalm 118 verse 14 states that "The Lord is my strength and my song; he has become my salvation." We definitely need strength from the Lord each and every day, just to get through life's daily trials and troubles. We can keep a song in our hearts if we focus on our Lord Jesus Christ through these times. Realizing that Jesus is our ONLY way to receive salvation lifts such a burden from your soul.
Monday, June 18, 2007
Fruit of the Unbeliever (AKA: Don't Do These!)
Matthew 15:19
- evil thoughts
- murder
- adultery
- sexual immorality
- theft
- false testimony (don't lie!)
- slander
Romans 1:29-32
- filled with every kind of wickedness
- evil
- greed
- depravity
- envy
- murder
- strife
- deceit
- malice
- gossip
- slander
- God-haters
- insolence
- arrogance
- boastfulness
- inventiveness in doing evil
- disobedience to parents
- senselessness
- faithlessness
- heartlessness
- ruthlessness
Romans 13:13
- orgies
- drunkenness
- sexual immorality
- debauchery
- dissention
- jealousy
So these passages stress three characteristics: murder, sexual immorality, and slander. Murder is pretty obvious. I think it's safe to say that most people agree that murder is morally wrong. Slander is pretty much well known as well - basically, don't say something untrue about others. Sexual immorality is much more tricky in today's society. What is clearly immoral in the Bible and even detestible in God's eyes is becoming more and more blurred. I don't want to get into this in this posting. Any comments?
Fruit of the Believer
Romans 5:3-5
- perserverance
- character
- hope
- love
2 Corinthians 9:8-11
- good work
- righteousness
- generosity
- thanksgiving
Galatians 5:22
- love
- joy
- peace
- patience
- kindness
- goodness
- faithfulness
- gentleness
- self-control
Ephesians 5:9
- goodness
- righteousness
- truth
Colossians 1:10-12
- good work
- knowledge of God
- endurance
- patience
- joy
- thankfulness
1 Timothy 6:11
- righteousness
- godliness
- faith
- love
- endurance
- gentleness
James 3:17
- purity
- peace-loving
- consideration
- submissiveness
- full of mercy and good fruit
- impartiality
- sincerity
- righteousness
2 Peter 1:5-7
- faith
- goodness
- knowledge
- self-control
- perserverance
- godliness
- brotherly kindness
- love
There are certainly others references to "fruit" throughout the Bible. In these passages, the most repeated characteristics are love, righteousness, goodness and faithfulness.
The Bible in 50 words
God made
Adam bit
Noah arked
Jacod fooled
Adam bit
Noah arked
Abraham split
Joseph ruledJacod fooled
bush talked
Moses balked
Pharoah plagued
people walked
sea divided
tablets guided
promise landed
Saul freaked
David peeked
prophets warned
Jesus born!
God walked
Love talked
anger crucified
Hope died
Love arose
Spirit flamed
Word spread
God remains
author unknown
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